The usual means by which lapis is formed is by the alteration of an impure limestone by the "cooking" effect caused by an intrusion of an igneous mass nearby. Thus it may be regarded as a product of contact metamorphism.
Throughout the recorded use of lapis the principal source has not been Persia, as the trade name would suggest it but near Firgamu, on the upper part of the Kokcha River, a tributary of the Oxua, in the Badakshan district of Afghanistan. Here it occurs in strata of black-and-white limestone. Both ruby and spinel have been found in the same region. A Siberian deposit is located at the southern end of Lake Baikal, where it occurs in a dolomitic limestone. A newer Russian source of material, similar to that in Badakshan, has been reported near Khorog, in the Pamir Mountains.
The only other important locality is the Ovalle Cordillera (Andes Mountains), Coquimbo Province, Chile. Material from the Ovalle deposits was used for decorative purposes by the Incas; one of the largest masses of lapis ever recorded, measuring 24 x 12 x 8 inches, was found in a Peruvian grave. Another Chilean deposit, but of less significance, is situated farther north, near Antofagasta. Other localities of minor importance include the Dattaw Valley near Mogok, Upper Burmal; Italian Mountain (Sawatch Range), Gunnison County, Colorado; Cascade Canyon, San Bernardino County, California; and Mono Lake, Mono County, California.
Since the Badakshan deposits have been worked for approximately six thousand years, they have been mentioned frequently in history. It is known, for example, that Alexander the Great visited the Oxus River Valley three hundred years before Chirst and that his army was instrumental in spreading the knowledge of lapis to the West. It is also recorded that Marco Polo passed through the region of 1271 and praised the beauty of this blue gem. But there was little real knowledge of Badakshan in the West until the nineteenth century, when several Englishmen and a Persian surveyor explored the area and provided the first accurate information of modern times. Later, in 1870, a long English adventurer had the courage and curiosity to go into the then all but forgotten Badakshan mountains to discover the exact nature of the ancient mines. On horseback he crossed the deep marshes of the valley, then entered a pass and climbed a high ridge that cuts off the upper valleys. From here he followed the Kokcha, which is a Turkish word meaning "blue river". A narrow, twisting trail, made dangerous by landslides, led to the mines. At times, when the route became too difficult for his horse, he would be forced to continue on foot, using crude leather busking to protect his feet and a heavy walking stick to help him across the many deep chasms. The valley closed in on either side with high naked mountains. The path became so steep and dangerous that the traveler then began to understand the warning that had been given him by a native mountaineer before the journey: "If you wish not to go to destruction, avoid this narrow valley." Curving lines of black-and-white limestone marked the mountain in which the mine shaft opened. A little way inside, the explorer found a large hole where the roof had collapsed. In some places the galleries were so blocked with debris that it was necessary to crawl on hands and knees. Accidents had been frequent and parts of the mine were named for workers who had lost their lives there. In the face of bitter wind, he set out to investigate another mine. He passed native travelers who wore masks of horsehair to protect their eyes from the glare of the snow. The wind blew so hard that he was forced to dismount. But more than the gale soon stopped him: avalanches and crumbling ice made the road impassable. Reluctantly, and without seeing so much as one piece of lapis, he was forced to turn back.
There has always been a tendency for writers (in fact, most of us) to romanticize the gem deposits of the world. Many of the most important are located in what we of the West (Europe and the Americas) often refer to as the "mysterious East". If inaccessibility is an index of romance and mystery, it would be difficult to imagine a better example than the important lapis deposits of the world. Even Kabul, the capital city of Afghanistan, is very rarely visited by outsiders, but it is a crossroads compared to the remainder of the country. And even by Afghanistan standards, the location of the lapis mines must be considered remote. Most of the country is ruggedly mountainous. The central range of the northeastern portion, the mighty Hindu Kush, has peaks of 24,000 feet. Although the lapis mines are in the northeastern corner of Afghanistan, they are north of the main Hindu Kush range. The Oxus River (or "Amu Darya" as the Russians know it) forms the boundary between the Soviet Union and northeastern Afghanistan before turning north into Russia. The Pamir Mountains, which lie in both countries, are drained by the headwaters of the Oxus. The Kokcha has its headwaters in the Hindu Kush. To reach the mine site requires days on horseback after leaving the last city to the north, followed by a climb of some 1000 to 1500 feet up the precipitous side of the steep-walled valley of the upper reaches of the Kokcha. In view of these problems, it is not difficult to understand the dearth of eye-witness reports, of activities at the mines.
This much may be concluded from reasonable evidence: the mines have been worked only sporadically throughout much of their history. They appear to remain productive, but are apparently worked only by or for the government. Recent efforts by colored-stone dealers to obtain lapis in quantity have met with offers of government-regarded and government-stored lots held at high prices. It was indicated to these dealers that stocks of the finer qualities were adequate to meet any anticipated demand. Apparently, the inaccessibility of the mines precludes bringing out anything less than the more expensive grades.
Today, mining is reportedly carried on in the same way and under the same rigorous conditions as it was centuries ago. The method consisted of building a fire on the gem-bearing rocks and then causing them to crack by the application of cold water. The sheets of lapis were then pried out with little difficulty. The operations were usually accomplished during the winter, probably because that was the only time water was readily available (in the form of snow) high on the valley walls. There was a time when the workers were supposed to believe that if the mines were approached in summer, huge, venomous reptiles would rush out and devour them. This belief may be held by many in Badakshan even today. Since the mines seem to be under the control of the government at present, it is possible that blasting, followed by drilling, is the mining method used today. However, since the area is too remote for air compressors, drilling is probably done only by hand tools.
